Features
Introduction to
Islamic History Pt I
The first six-centuries of Islamic History are filled with incredible events and remarkable people. It begins with the period of the Khulafa al-Rashidun, when four Companions of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, starting with Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (d. 634) and ending with ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661), ruled in accordance to the Prophetic Way and when Islam burst forth from Arabia into the lands of the Romans and the Persians. This expansion would continue under the Umayyads (661-750), the first hereditary dynasty in Islam before they themselves are overthrown by the Abbasids. Under this new dynasty, Persian cultural influences begin to replace Arab culture, but also sees the dawn of a new Golden Age for Islam.
“The uprightness of the Abbasids was outstanding. They used their royal authority to further as far as possible, the different aspects and ways of the truth…”
- Ibn Khaldun, 15th c. Muqaddimah
When the power and authority of the Abbasids began to decline, new dynasties were formed from al-Andalus in the West, to Persia and Khurasan in the East. Authority transferred from the Arabs to the Persians, the Berbers (Amazigh) and the Turks. It was the latter, who would leave the greatest impact as dynasties such as the Ghaznavids (977-1186) and the Saljuqs (1037-1194) continued the expansion of Islam after it lay dormant for two-centuries. As Islam spread, however, new threats would loom against the lands of Islam.
“This is the way of the world. It never gives without taking back, is never sweet without turning bitter, and is never pure without turning soiled…”
- Ibn al-Athir, 13th c. Al-Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh
Off the Beaten Path
Travels in the Muslim World
Travel writing or Rihla has played an important role in recording Islamic History. Since the period of the Abbasid Caliphate, Muslim travelers have traveled throughout the span of the Islamic World and beyond, leaving behind captivating eye-witness accounts of their experiences. While the most famous Muslim traveler is the famed 14th century Moroccan Ibn Battuta (d. 1377), other names such as Abu Zayd al-Sirafi (d. c. 940) who traveled from Iraq to China or Ahmad ibn Fadlan (d. 960), an Abbasid official sent on a diplomatic mission to the Volga Bulgars, in what is now Russia, or Seydi Ali Reis (d. 1563), an Ottoman Admiral who was shipwrecked off the coast of India and travels overland back to Constantinople, are equally fascinating and detailed travelogues.
“Travel has the following virtues; seeing wonders of the world and the magnificent landmarks that make one more aware of Allah’s Might and Grace which makes Him appreciated.”
- Al-Tha’alabi, 11th c. Zad Safar al-Muluk
Books of Rihla give us an incredible window to a specific period of history covering dynasties, people, cultures, and events. In addition, they are also stories of perseverance, survival and reliance upon Allah ﷻ. Due to this, the accounts found therein are important in multiple regards both spiritually and historically.
“That night there fell upon us from shoreward a mighty storm with a wind which Allah ﷻ released at the time we met the land, but from which He preserved and delivered us. All praises be to Him for that.”
- Ibn Jubayr, 13th c. Rihla ibn Jubayr
The Mamluks
Saviors of Islam
The year is 1258, Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate has fallen to the Mongols in a bloodbath of death and destruction. Eager to continue their march, the Mongols now have Syria and the Holy Land in their sights. If the Holy Land falls, nothing will stand in their way, and the road to Cairo, Makkah and Madinah will lay open. By now, the ruling Ayyubids are but a shadow of their former selves. Without a strong leader like Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (d. 1193), civil war had weakened their power leaving the sultanate split with one ruler in Syria and another in Egypt. When a Crusader army landed in Egypt less than a decade earlier, the Ayyubids barely beat them if it wasn’t for their loyal slave-warriors - the mamluks. With an even greater threat approaching, the Mamluk commander, Sayf al-Din Qutuz (d. 1260) assumes power himself and prepares his forces to meet the Mongols.
“It was by the grace of Allah ﷻ that He came to the rescue of the true Faith, restoring in Egypt the unity of the Muslims…by sending to them, out of this Turkish people…guardian amirs and devoted defenders who are imported as slaves from the lands of heathendom, to the lands of Islam...”
- Ibn Khaldun, 14th c. Al-Muqaddimah
In the coming battle of Ayn Jalut in 1260, the Mamluks inflicted one of the first defeats experienced by the Mongols, stopping their advance. This is followed by further victories as well as a renewed effort by the Muslims to unify against their enemies. By 1290, the Mamluks press on against the final Crusader-held territories in the Holy Land earning the Mamluks the title of Saviors of Islam. Following this victory, Cairo becomes the capital of the Muslim world attracting scholars, poets, adventurers and more breathing life back into the Muslim World after almost two-centuries of invasions and occupation.
“The city and its suburbs have towering palaces, large mansions, comfortable dwellings, extensive markets, madrassas, Sufi convents, hospices and zawiyahs…All the nations of the world have been squeezed in and peoples of all sorts have flocked therein.”
- Al-’Umari, 14th c. Masalik al-Absar fi Mamalik al-Amsar
Salah al-Din
Upright Ruler, Fearless Warrior
In 1096, the First Crusade crossed into Asia Minor from Constantinople and entered Muslim territories. After pushing aside the Saljuqs of Rum, the Crusaders arrived in the Holy Land. In 1099, the Holy City of al-Quds (Jerusalem) was taken by the Crusaders who engaged in a terrible massacre of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. The Muslim rulers at the time seemed helpless and were deeply divided. The Fatimids who ruled Egypt and who had initially praised the Crusader victories over their rivals the Saljuqs, found themselves too weak to put up a solid defense. The Saljuqs, on the other hand, had broken up into numerous contending dynasties who were too busy fighting each other. Meanwhile in Baghdad, the Abbasid Khalifa was slow to recognize the Crusader threat.
“In his love for Jihad fi sabilillah, he shunned his womenfolk, his children, his homeland, his home and all his pleasures, and for this world he was content to dwell in the shade of his tent with the winds blowing through it left and right.”
- Ibn Shaddad, 12th c. Al-Nawadir al-Sultaniyya
wa’l-Mahasin al-Yusufiyya
As the Crusader occupation of al-Quds neared its first century, a leader would emerge from a fractured Muslim front to unite Arabs, Kurds and Turkmen under his banner. After defeating a Crusader army at the Battle of Hattin in 1187, Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (d. 1193) marched at the head of his army to liberate al-Quds. In addition to his military skills, his piety, compassion and just rule gained the respect of friend and foe alike making Salah al-Din a model for future Muslim leadership.
“If a king is known to follow the path of justice, to be persistent in dispensing it, and to fulfil the requirements and conditions of justice, then there is no doubt that he will be highly esteemed by kings superior to him, exalted by his equals and feared by his enemies.”
- Al-Tha’alabi, 11th c. Kitab Adab al-Muluk al-Khwarazm Shahi
House of Osman Pt. II
The Ottomans 1300-1700
Continuing the story of the rise of Ottoman Power, the young Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih (d. 1481) would fulfil the centuries old hadtih of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ to become the ruler of the famed city of Constantinople. In the decades to come, further expansion would be made both East and West and a succession of great rulers would lead the Ottomans to numerous victories. Under Yavuz Sultan Selim I (d. 1520) the Ottomans would become Caliphs while under his son, Qanuni Sultan Sulayman (d. 1566) the Ottomans would carry the flag of Islam to the very gates of Vienna.
“Sultan Muhammad, Ebu’l Feth, was a learned and wise Sultan. He had the position of being a world-conqueror and with his qualifications, he was competing with others in the world.”
- Tursun Beg, 15th c. Tarih-i Ebu’l Feth
With strong leadership, however, eventually weakness and complacency arises and for the Ottomans, the first cracks also start to appear. Following a bitter struggle between Sultan Sulayman’s sons, the least likely emerges to become ruler. Under Sultan Selim II (d. 1574), a number of defeats are experienced by the Ottomans and gives for the first time in centuries, resolve to the Europeans to face their foe. Still, the Ottomans would cling to the memory of great victories and from time to time, find inspiration, courage and hope.
“Like a hero, the sovereign commander sped his horse towards the [enemy]. With him was the exuberant sea of his army. All armed and as innumerable as schools of fish. The soldiers were arrayed before him like the bright new moon as brilliant as the sun.”
- Sinan Çavus, 16th c. Suleyman-name
House of Osman Pt. I
The Ottomans 1300-1700
In the mid-13th century, Ertugrul Gazi (d. 1280) leader of a small branch of the Oghuz Turks migrated to western Anatolia to escape the Mongol Invasions. By 1299, Ertugrul’s son Osman Gazi (d. 1323) founded a new Islamic Dynasty following his victories over local Byzantine forces. Known as the Ottomans, Osman’s son Orhan Gazi (d. 1362) would lead them to further victories, making the city of Bursa his new capital. As power increased, the new ruler Sultan Murad I (d. 1389), formed the elite Janissary Corps, and led Ottoman forces into Europe for the first time.
“My father, Osman Gazi turned a patch of dirt into a beylik. Then we turned that beylik into a sultanate and by Allah’s Will, we will spread His Sublime Word for we are not only the heirs of the Seljuqs, but also the heirs of Rome!”
- Orhan Gazi
Despite these gains, the Ottomans would almost see all their hopes dashed when Sultan Yildirim Bayezid (d. 1403) was defeated and captured by the Turco-Mongol ruler Amir Timur (d. 1405) at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Within a decade, however, the Ottomans had not only consolidated their strength but would also carry the banners of Islam to the very gates of Constantinople. Part I of this three-part series will look at the early Ottoman rulers and how they paved the way for their descendants to rule for the next 600 years.
“Go and gather new armies and engage us again, for you are only giving me further opportunities to gain victory over you, for I was born to spread the religion of Allah ﷻ and gain His approval.”
- Bayezid I
From Exemplary
to Notorious
How Time Vilified the Esteemed
Throughout history, there has been a habit of vilifying great individuals and their legacy such as the Ottoman ruler Yavuz Sultan Selim (d. 1520) who is known as “The Grim” and the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb (d. 1707). Instead of remembering these exceptional leaders, history has been unkind, has been re-written, or has been forgotten. What is the true story behind these individuals? By carefully examining our own historical sources, we discover a narrative quite different from the current erroneous view that has been painted, and discover once again, what made these Muslim rulers so special.
“He was motivated by a desire to save mankind from the domination of tyrannical rulers and to assemble the Muslims of the Seven Climes around one flag.”
Lokman Çelebi, 16th c. Kiyafetu’l-Insaniyye fi Semaili’l-Osmaniyye
Banners Over Hind
Babur, Humayun & Akbar
Turmoil, war and power struggles grip Central Asia in the beginning of the 16th century. One ambitious Chagatai prince, a direct descendant of Genghis Khan (d. 1227) and Amir Timur (d. 1405) sees no future in this region where kingdoms can be won as easily as they can be lost. On 17th November, 1526, he leads his loyal troops over the Hindu Kush mountains and enters Hind (India) determined to carve out his own empire. His forces easily defeat the army of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi (d. 1526), the last ruler of the Sultanate of Delhi and march onwards to capture the city.
“The enemy fought with desperate valor till Babur charged with his personal guards like a lion rushing from his lair…”
- Firishta, 17th c. Tarikh-i Firishta
From the capital of Delhi, this prince whose name is Babur (d. 1530), becomes a ruler and establishes a dynasty that would last for over three centuries. His son Humayun (d. 1556) and grandson Akbar (d. 1605) would not only hold firmly to these new territories but also expand the rule of Islam over much of India and the neighboring regions. The Mughals, as this dynasty would be known by, recalling their Mongol lineage would leave a lasting legacy which continues to shape our understanding of Islam and Muslims in the Subcontinent to this very day.
“From the time of RasulAllah ﷺ until this date only three rulers gained dominion over and ruled the realm of Hindustan…I am the third.”
Babur, 16th c. Baburnama
From Khans to Sultans
The Mongol Dynasties of Islam
Led by the military genius Genghis Khan (d. 1227), the Mongol Invasions of the early 13th century could have easily brought about the end of Islam. Pillaging, destroying and killing everything in their path, the Mongol hordes swept through Central Asia where the great centers of Marv, Nishapur and Balkh were put to the sword. When the great capital Baghdad falls in 1258, fear grips the Muslim World. Damascus, Al-Quds and Cairo could be next, and with nothing to stop the Mongols, the Holy Cities of Makkah and Madinah would be at their mercy.
“They left nothing standing in any land they reached.”
- Khwandamir, 16th c. Habibu’s-Siyar
It is at this dark moment, that Allah ﷻ sent His Divine Assistance to a small yet brave band of Muslim slave-warriors; the Mamluks, who were granted victory over the Mongols at the Battle of Ayn Jalut on 3rd September 1260, halting their advance. At the same time, Islam had already begun entering the hearts of the invaders. Soon, it would spread further until three new Mongol Dynasties would emerge where Islam becomes the state religion and also lay the foundation for both the Timurid and Mughal Empires. Remembered for their patronage of the arts, Islamic scholarship and religious tolerance, the Mongols had transitioned from Khans to Sultans.
“In the Name of Allah, Most Merciful, Most Compassionate…We have sat on the chair of kingship, and we are Muslims, so let the people of Baghdad receive these glad tidings.”
Letter of Ahmad Tekuder, son of Hulegu as mentioned by Ibn ‘Abd al-Zahir, 13th c. Tashrif al-Ayyam wa’l-’Usur fi Sirat al-Malik al-Mansur